Poetry written asleep, paintings assembled from dreams, and a Paris movement run with a pope's discipline — Surrealism organized the irrational, and its orbit runs from Desnos's trances to the Villa Seurat's prose.
Surrealism began as a word before it was a movement: Guillaume Apollinaire coined 'sur-réalisme' in 1917, in the orbit of the scandalous ballet Parade, to name art that went beyond realism rather than against it. The word outlived him and found its organizer in André Breton, who — with the wreckage of Dada behind him and Freud's consulting room in view — published the Manifesto of Surrealism in 1924: the marvelous is beautiful, dreams are evidence, and 'pure psychic automatism' is a method.[1][2][3]
What made Paris Surrealism unlike any avant-garde before it was its machinery: a Bureau of Surrealist Research open to the public, journals, exhibitions, group séances — and a membership Breton ran with doctrinal severity, complete with trials and excommunications. The joke that Breton was 'the pope of Surrealism' was funny because it was administrative fact.[4][5][6][7]
The methods produced the era's most exportable images — automatic writing, the exquisite corpse, dream transcription, objects estranged from their functions — and by the thirties the movement had crossed from the little magazines into painting's front rank: Ernst, Miró, Magritte, Dalí. The war scattered the Surrealists toward New York, where their methods seeded the next avant-garde; the movement formally survived until Breton's death in 1966, but its images had long since escaped anyone's discipline.[8][5][9][7]
The founding core was literary: Breton, Louis Aragon, Paul Éluard, Philippe Soupault — and Robert Desnos, the movement's natural wonder, who could drop into trance during the 'sleeping fits' and produce poems on demand. Breton called Desnos Surrealism's prophet in Le Journal littéraire in July 1924 and wrote in the first Manifesto that he spoke Surrealist at will, then expelled him in the Second — the standard arc of proximity to the pope — after which Desnos simply kept writing, better than most of the faithful, until the Resistance and Terezín ended the story.
Painters gave the movement its public face — Max Ernst, Joan Miró, René Magritte, Salvador Dalí, with Man Ray photographing the lot — while Picasso occupied the position only he could: exhibited with the Surrealists, claimed loudly by Breton, and never a member of anything but himself. The movement's Paris geography ran from the rue Fontaine studio of Breton to the rue Blomet studios of Miró and Masson — a few hundred meters of the city producing a world's worth of images.[10][11][12][13][14]
Salvador Dalí's Surrealist work runs from The Great Masturbator, painted at Cadaqués in the summer of 1929, through The Persistence of Memory, to Un Chien Andalou — the film he wrote with Luis Buñuel in six days, and the work that carried him into the group. Gala Dalí ties the painters back to the founding poets: she arrived in the movement's circle as Paul Éluard's wife a decade before she left it as Dalí's manager and wife.
Writers touched Surrealism from its edges. Robert Desnos connects it to the Céline story — the trance-poet turned anti-fascist journalist who clashed with the novelist over the pamphlets. Anaïs Nin's House of Incest is a genuinely Surrealist prose work in English, written at Louveciennes with the movement's methods and none of its membership; Henry Miller's Black Spring flights run on the same fuel. Brassaï photographed for the Surrealist-adjacent journal Minotaure while shooting the same nocturnal Paris Miller was writing about; and Antonin Artaud, the movement's most incandescent casualty, burns through the 1931–1934 volume of Nin's Diary.
Even the Lost Generation's cafés brush against it: the same Montparnasse terraces served both congregations, and the riots at modernist premieres that Huddleston reports were often Surrealist productions. Paris in the twenties was not big enough for the movements to avoid each other.
The Surrealists are usually described as having invented techniques, which is true, and the techniques are usually left as names. They are worth knowing, because each one was a way of getting a result the maker had not planned.
A rayograph is a photograph made without a camera: objects are laid straight onto photographic paper and the paper is exposed to light. Tate notes that the technique is as old as photography itself, but that Man Ray refined and personalised it so far that the prints ended up carrying his name.[15] The Metropolitan Museum holds examples dated 1922 and 1923, among them one made from a comb, a straight razor blade and a needle.[16]
Frottage is French for rubbing, and it means exactly that: a sheet laid over a textured surface and rubbed with a soft pencil until the texture comes through. Max Ernst developed it from 1925 after looking at an old wooden floor whose grain had been deepened by years of scrubbing, and published a collection of the drawings as Histoire Naturelle in 1926.[17]
He then adapted it to oil paint and called the result grattage, scraping: a canvas is prepared with paint, laid over a textured object and scraped back. In his Forest and Dove the trees appear to have been made by scraping over the backbone of a fish.[17]
The Museum of Modern Art states the problem in its own words: women were largely regarded as the subjects and muses of the men who dominated Surrealism, among them Max Ernst, Salvador Dalí, Man Ray and René Magritte.[18] Tate makes the same observation from the other end, noting how hard it is not to notice the absence of women's names in the list that comes to mind.[19]
Several women were in the group as artists, and their work is well documented.
Oppenheim, German-Swiss, 1913 to 1985, moved to Paris in 1932 and was soon taking part in Surrealist meetings and exhibitions.[18] In 1936, aged twenty-three, she made the fur-covered cup, saucer and spoon that is now at the Museum of Modern Art.[20]
The museum tells the story of how it came about, so it can be told here as its account rather than as folklore. Oppenheim was at a Paris café with Pablo Picasso and the photographer Dora Maar. Picasso admired her fur-trimmed bracelets and remarked that one could cover almost anything with fur. Even this cup and saucer, Oppenheim replied, and called out for a little more fur.[18][20] She then bought a cup, saucer and spoon in a department store and wrapped them in the speckled tan fur of a Chinese gazelle.[18]
The title it is usually known by, Le Déjeuner en fourrure, was not hers. André Breton gave it.[20] Alfred Barr, who ran the Museum of Modern Art and showed the piece in 1936, wrote that few works of art in recent years had so captured the popular imagination.[20] Critics who assumed the maker must be a man referred to her as Mr Oppenheim.[18]
Maar was born Henriette Theodora Markovitch in 1907 and opened a photographic studio in Paris in 1931 with the set designer Pierre Kéfer, trading as Kéfer-Dora Maar.[21] She joined the Surrealists from 1933, and Tate describes her as one of the few artists, and fewer women, to be included in the group's exhibitions.[21] Her Père Ubu of 1936 is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
She is usually introduced as the subject of Picasso's Weeping Woman. Maar said the painting was not a portrait of her but a metaphor for the tragedy of the Spanish people.[21] She taught Picasso the cliché verre technique and photographed the making of Guernica in 1937; by 1940 her passport gave her profession as photographer-painter.[21]
Miller, 1907 to 1977, moved to Paris in 1929 to work with Man Ray. The Victoria and Albert Museum describes the arrangement plainly: she was both his collaborator and his model, and often took assignments on his behalf so that he could concentrate on his painting.[22] She experimented with photograms and with solarisation and produced her own Surrealist work.[22]
Her Exploding Hand, made in Paris around 1930, shows a hand reaching towards a door handle inside what looks like a cloud of smoke. The smoke is scratches on the glass door of the Guerlain perfumery, made by the diamond rings of its customers.[22]
Carrington, 1917 to 2011, worked in the Paris circle with Max Ernst. Their book La dame ovale, which she wrote and he illustrated with eight lithographs after his collages, was published in Paris in 1939 in an edition of 535 copies. The Art Institute of Chicago describes it as one of their last collaborations before the Nazi regime drove them to Mexico.[23]
Tate's own phrasing for how her career began is worth quoting because it describes the problem it is reporting: she began as the plus one of the famous Surrealist Max Ernst.[19]
Not everyone wanted the grouping. Tate quotes the painter Dorothea Tanning refusing it outright: she wished people would not harp on the word women, said that women artists as a category did not exist any more than man artists or elephant artists did, and that you may be a woman and you may be an artist, but one is a given and the other is you.[19]
The Surrealists claimed Giorgio de Chirico, 1888 to 1978, as a forerunner, and the sequence is stranger than that makes it sound. His metaphysical paintings — empty arcaded squares, long shadows, mannequins — were made from about 1911; Apollinaire was the critic who first called them metaphysical.[24][25]
By the time he returned to Paris in 1924, de Chirico had changed his approach and repudiated those early pictures himself. Tate records what happened next: the Surrealists' attention fixed on exactly the pre-war paintings he had rejected, Breton treated him as a precursor of the movement, and the group never embraced his later work.[25] His influence on Ernst, Dalí and Magritte was large all the same.[25]
René Magritte, 1898 to 1967, was Belgian and spent three years in Paris to be near the movement, arriving in September 1927 and going home to Brussels in July 1930 after the crash and the closing of the Galerie Goemans.[26]
He worked at an unprecedented pace in those years, and it is when he painted the picture of a pipe captioned with the statement that it is not a pipe. The Treachery of Images, 1929, is at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, which describes it as a treatise on the impossibility of reconciling word, image and object, presented in the style of an advertisement.[27][26]
Breton wrote the Manifeste du surréalisme at his parents' house in Lorient, alongside the automatic text Poisson soluble, and it was published in Paris in October 1924 by Éditions du Sagittaire, Simon Kra's imprint.[2][28] France Mémoire gives the date as 15 October, and notes that the text was first conceived as a preface rather than a manifesto.[29]
The definition in it is the one everything else hangs from. Surrealism, Breton wrote, is pure psychic automatism, by which one proposes to express the real functioning of thought, verbally or in writing or in any other manner, as thought dictates it, in the absence of any control exercised by reason and outside any aesthetic or moral concern.[30][2] The sentence that follows is the one usually left out: that Surrealism rests on a belief in the higher reality of certain forms of association previously neglected, in the omnipotence of dream, and in the disinterested play of thought.[2]
The word was not his. Guillaume Apollinaire had subtitled his 1917 play Les Mamelles de Tirésias a drame surréaliste; Breton took the term and defined it.[28][30]
Publication was announced in the street. The Bibliothèque nationale de France records that it was accompanied by papillons — small coloured slips scattered across Paris.[31]
The manuscript survives: twenty-one leaves, unbound, thick with pasted additions and slips.[32] France classified it a national treasure in 2017 and the Bibliothèque nationale bought it in 2021 through a patronage campaign; since February 2024 Breton's manuscripts have been freely readable on Gallica.[33]
The Bureau of Surrealist Research opened on the rue de Grenelle in 1924 and handed out the papillons.[34] It kept public hours and asked visitors to bring in dreams and coincidences; Antonin Artaud took over as its secretary in January 1925, and it ran for roughly six months.
The journals came in sequence, and the sequence is the movement's own account of itself. Littérature was founded in March 1919 by Breton with Louis Aragon and Philippe Soupault, later joined by Paul Éluard.[28][31] La Révolution surréaliste followed, its first issue dated 1 December 1924 under Pierre Naville and Benjamin Péret; Breton took over its direction from the fourth number in 1925, after Naville had used the third to declare that there was no such thing as Surrealist painting.[28]
Le Surréalisme au service de la révolution replaced it in July 1930, under Breton, and ran to 1933.[34] Minotaure was founded in 1933 by Albert Skira and Tériade and turned largely Surrealist from its third issue, with Breton, Dalí, Éluard and Péret among its main contributors.[34]
Outside the office there was a café. The Cyrano on the place Blanche, close to Breton's flat on the rue Fontaine, was the group's regular meeting place, with evenings also held at Breton's home and at the studios Miró and André Masson kept on the rue Blomet.[34]
Breton lived and worked in a flat of about eighty square metres at 42 rue Fontaine until his death in 1966, and filled it with what he collected. The Centre Pompidou dates his arrival to 1922 on one of its pages and 1921 on another, so the year is not settled even inside the institution that owns the result.[35]
What he assembled on one wall of the second room is now in the Musée national d'art moderne, reconstructed as the mur Breton: paintings, photographs, masks, stones, insects, Oceanic and American objects, 212 pieces in all. Breton explained his own collecting as an irresistible need to possess, which he put down to wanting to take on the powers of the objects themselves.[35]
It nearly went to pieces. The contents of the flat were sold at the Hôtel Drouot on 17 April 2003. The French state preempted heavily at that sale, spending 11,565,560 euros, and a separate arrangement with Breton's daughter Aube Breton-Elloüet brought the works of the great wall into public collections together rather than scattering them.[36] The flat itself could not be opened to the public: it was too small, too hard to reach, and the conservation conditions were poor.[36]
The Exposition Internationale du Surréalisme ran from 17 January to 24 February 1938 at the Galerie des Beaux-Arts, 140 rue du Faubourg-Saint-Honoré. The Museum of Modern Art calls it the last major Surrealist event before the war.[34]
Visitors met Dalí's Rainy Taxi in the lobby: a scrapped car plumbed so that it rained inside, soaking two dummies — a driver with a shark's head, and a woman sitting among lettuces and live snails.[34] Beyond it ran a Surrealist street with Paris street signs and mannequins dressed by Ernst, Arp, Tanguy, Man Ray, Duchamp, Dalí and Miró; Masson's had its head in a birdcage and its mouth gagged with black velvet.[34]
Marcel Duchamp oversaw the whole thing and designed the main hall. He hung twelve hundred coal sacks from the ceiling and covered the floor with dead leaves and moss, with a pond of ferns and reeds at one end and a double bed beside it.[34]
At the opening, roasters filled the rooms with the smell of coffee, German marching songs played over loudspeakers, and the dancer Helen Vanel improvised a piece around the pond.[34]
Membership was granted and withdrawn personally, and the record of it is unusually complete.
Artaud and Philippe Soupault were expelled in November 1926 for recognising value in purely literary activity.[34] The Second Manifesto of December 1929 castigated a further list of former members; Breton described it as a recall to principles and a purification.[34]
The reply came in 1930. Under the title Un Cadavre, a group of dissidents including Michel Leiris, Raymond Queneau, Robert Desnos and Jacques Prévert, joined by Georges Bataille, attacked Breton in print and called him a policeman, a false priest and a false revolutionary.[34]
Alberto Giacometti was expelled in 1935 for going back to working from a model.[34] Dalí was formally censured in January 1934 over his interest in Nazism, though he went on showing with the group; Breton broke with him finally in New York in 1941, renaming him Avida Dollars, an anagram of his name.[34]
It cut both ways. Breton was himself expelled from the Association des Écrivains et Artistes Révolutionnaires in 1933 for refusing to condemn a letter he had published.[34]
The Paris group ran from 1924 to 1940, dispersed to Marseille and New York during the war, and reassembled in Paris from 1946. It was formally dissolved in 1969, three years after Breton's death, in a letter published in Le Monde.[34]
Not every institution accepts an end date. Tate's position is that the movement's ideas went on being circulated and remade through international networks, and it adds a caution worth keeping: some of the artists assimilated to Surrealism always refused to be called Surrealists.[30] The Centre Pompidou dates only the beginning, to the 1924 manifesto.[37]
Painting · Surrealism
A sun split in two hangs at the top of a black sky. Below it, the lower halves of a naked man and woman float joined together under a yellow crescent, and fine threads run down to planets, a gloved hand over the earth and a heap of flesh-coloured shapes on the ground. Max Ernst painted it in 1923 and gave it to André Breton, with a poem on the back that explains it in riddles. Tate has owned it since 1960.
Painting · Surrealism
A man in a bowler hat kneels and holds a stiff young man in a white shirt across his lap, like the Virgin Mary holding the dead Christ. The young man has the grey head of a Greek statue, and Tate says he is Max Ernst himself, held by his father. A man with a bandaged head is sketched on the wall behind them. Max Ernst painted it in 1923 at Saint-Brice, outside Paris, in the house of the poet Paul Éluard. Tate has owned it since 1981.
Painting · Surrealism
A tiny bird in a blue sky frightens two girls: one runs at it with a knife and the other lies fainted on the grass. A man on the roof of a toy house carries off a child and reaches for a knob fixed to the frame. The gate, the house and the knob are real wooden objects. Max Ernst made it in 1924, the year Surrealism was founded, and traced it to a fever he had as a child. Paul Éluard owned it in Paris, and the Museum of Modern Art bought it from him in 1937.
Painting · Surrealism
Dalí painted it at Cadaqués at the end of the summer Gala stayed. The Reina Sofía in Madrid has held it since the 1990 bequest.
Film · Surrealism
A cloud crosses the moon; a razor crosses an eye — and cinema acquires its most famous seventeen minutes. Written in six days by two young Spaniards trading dreams, on one rule: no image that could be explained. Ants pour from a hole in a palm, a man drags pianos loaded with dead donkeys and live priests, and a Paris premiere its director attended with stones in his pockets ends, to his disgust, in applause.
Painting · Surrealism
Dalí painted the melting watches in 1931, on a canvas smaller than a sheet of paper. The Museum of Modern Art has had it since 1934.
Painting · Surrealism
Dalí compressed Gala, two lamb chops and a sunlit stone courtyard into a panel smaller than a credit card. His later explanation connected the meat with a desire to devour her.
Sculpture · Surrealism
Meret Oppenheim made Object in Paris in 1936 by covering a bought cup, saucer and spoon in gazelle fur. The set is instantly recognizable as tableware and immediately impossible to imagine drinking from. It is at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and André Breton gave it a second title, Le Déjeuner en fourrure.
Painting · Surrealism
Salvador Dalí turned the crouching Narcissus into a stone hand holding an egg and flower. This guide explains the double image, the Greek myth, the companion poem, and the painting's documented journey from Edward James to Sigmund Freud and Tate.
Painting · Surrealism
Salvador Dalí turned three swans and their reflections into three elephants. This guide shows how the double image works and traces the painting from Edward James through Nazi looting to its present private collection.
Painting · Surrealism
Salvador Dalí's small 1937 painting shows two distorted human figures supported by crutches while a giraffe burns in the distance. This guide separates what is visible from what the surviving records can prove.
Sculpture · Surrealism
A working 1930s telephone with a painted plaster lobster fitted over its receiver, designed by Dalí for the patron Edward James and fabricated by Green & Abbott. Eleven lobster receivers turned a Surrealist image into a functional household object.
Author · Poet
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Poet · Journalist
Painter · Sculptor
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Photographer · Author
Photographer · Painter
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Poet · Author
Painter · Sculptor
Painter
Painter · Sculptor
Painter
Painter · Sculptor
Painter · Author
Sculptor · Painter
Photographer · Painter
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Poet · Patron
Filmmaker
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Photographer · Artists' model
Painter
1917
Apollinaire coins 'sur-réalisme' in the orbit of Parade — the word arrives before the movement.
1919
Breton and Soupault write The Magnetic Fields — automatic writing's first sustained experiment.
1924
The Manifesto of Surrealism and the Bureau of Surrealist Research open for business; Desnos reigns over the sleeping fits.
1929
The Second Manifesto purges the ranks — Desnos among the excommunicated — while Un Chien Andalou brings Dalí and Buñuel into the fold.
1930s
The painters carry it worldwide — Ernst, Miró, Magritte, Dalí — while Minotaure gives it a deluxe journal.
1938
The International Surrealist Exhibition in Paris: the movement as immersive spectacle, mannequins and coal sacks included.
1940s
War scatters the Surrealists to New York, where the methods seed Abstract Expressionism's generation.
1966
Breton dies; the church closes, the images long since everywhere.
André Breton defined Surrealism in the 1924 manifesto as pure psychic automatism, by which one proposes to express the real functioning of thought, in speech or writing or any other manner, as thought dictates it, with no control exercised by reason and outside any aesthetic or moral concern. The sentence usually left out of the quotation is the next one: that Surrealism rests on a belief in the higher reality of certain neglected forms of association, in the omnipotence of dream, and in the disinterested play of thought.
Yes, though the Museum of Modern Art states plainly that women were largely regarded as the subjects and muses of the men who dominated it. Meret Oppenheim made the fur-covered cup and saucer of 1936 that is one of the movement's best-known objects. Dora Maar was a working photographer who ran her own Paris studio and was, in Tate's words, one of the few artists and fewer women included in the group's exhibitions. Lee Miller worked with Man Ray as both collaborator and model, and Leonora Carrington published with Max Ernst in Paris in 1939.
Methods for getting a result the maker had not planned. Automatic writing meant writing as fast as possible without consciously guiding the hand. The cadavre exquis was a folded-paper game in which each player added to a drawing or sentence without seeing what came before. A rayograph is a photograph made with no camera, by laying objects on photographic paper and exposing it to light. Frottage is a rubbing taken from a textured surface, grattage the same idea scraped into oil paint, and decalcomania an image made by pressing paint between two surfaces.
Two places. The Bureau of Surrealist Research opened on the rue de Grenelle in 1924, kept public hours and invited people to bring in their dreams; it lasted about six months. The lasting address was André Breton's flat at 42 rue Fontaine, which he kept until his death in 1966 and filled with art and objects. One wall of it, 212 pieces, is now reconstructed in the Musée national d'art moderne at the Centre Pompidou.
A Paris art and literary movement, launched by André Breton's Manifesto of Surrealism in 1924, built on the conviction that dreams are evidence, the marvelous is beautiful, and "pure psychic automatism" is a working method. It produced automatic writing, the exquisite corpse, dream transcription, and objects estranged from their functions.
André Breton organized and led it, running the movement with such doctrinal severity that the joke about him being "the pope of Surrealism" was administrative fact. The word itself came earlier: Guillaume Apollinaire coined "sur-réalisme" in 1917, around the ballet Parade, to name art that went beyond realism rather than against it.
It began with the 1924 Manifesto and formally survived until Breton's death in 1966 — though its images had long since escaped anyone's discipline. The war of the 1940s scattered the Surrealists to New York, where their methods seeded the next avant-garde.
Automatic writing, the collaborative drawing game called the exquisite corpse, group séances and "sleeping fits" that produced poems in trance, and dream transcription — all methods for bypassing conscious control. In painting the aim was the same: everyday objects estranged from their ordinary use.
The founding core was literary — Breton, Louis Aragon, Paul Éluard, Philippe Soupault, and the trance-poet Robert Desnos. The painters gave it its public face: Max Ernst, Joan Miró, René Magritte, and Salvador Dalí, with Man Ray photographing them. Picasso exhibited with them but was never a member of anything but himself.
The sources below include histories, manifestos, scholarly research, and primary materials that informed this page. They document Surrealism, its development, and the artists and works associated with it.
University-press study of how Apollinaire first used “sur-réalisme” in the May 1917 programme note for the ballet Parade, and what he meant by it.
Museum lecture on Breton’s reading of Freud, his October 1921 visit to Vienna, and free association as the technique behind the 1924 Manifesto.
Archive record of the Bureau de recherches surréalistes at 15 rue de Grenelle: who staffed it, what visitors were asked to contribute, and its link to La Révolution surréaliste.
The manuscripts of the 1922 sleeping fits, showing Desnos as the medium the sessions organised themselves around.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Definition of the exquisite corpse, the folded-paper game the Surrealists invented in Paris in 1925.
For the afterlife of the methods: how automatism and the unconscious passed from Surrealism into the painting that followed it in New York.
The museum’s biography of Man Ray, who became the group’s photographer after arriving in Paris in 1921 and showed in the first Surrealist exhibition of 1925.
The Picasso museum on Breton’s championing of Picasso, his works in La Révolution surréaliste and the 1925 Galerie Pierre show, and his never claiming membership.
Curatorial article on Breton’s studio at 42 rue Fontaine — the group meetings and sleep sessions held there, and the wall of objects the museum acquired.
Archive record of the gatherings at 45 rue Blomet in the studios of André Masson and Joan Miró.
The artist’s estate biography, for Masson’s move to 45 rue Blomet in the winter of 1921–22 with Miró in the neighbouring studio.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Web source consulted for documented facts and historical context presented on the Surrealism page.
Museum collection context for Surrealist artists, objects, and the movement’s legacy.
French state memorial record for Desnos: automatic writing and hypnotic sleeps, the split with Breton, the Agir resistance network, his arrest on 22 February 1944, and his death of typhus at Terezín on 8 June 1945.
These references provide the documented foundation for this movement's history and interpretation. Claim-level citations remain attached to the specific claims they support.
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